non-sense stuff

light dependent reaction
thylakoid
Z protein splits water-->PSII excited (photons)-->PQ(4H)-->(4H)B6F-->PC-->PSI-->Fd-->FNR-->NADP-->NADPH
4H-->ATP synthase-->ADP-->ATP

light independent reaction
stroma
6 CO2-->RuBP 5C (rubisco)-->12 PGA 3C-->(ATP-->ADP)12 DPGA 3C-->(NADPH-->NADP)12 G3P 3C-->10 G3P (2 form glucose)-->6 RP 5C-->(ATP-->ADP)6 RuBP 5C

C4
CO2-->PEP-->OOA-->pyruvate, -CO2-->PEP

CAM
obtains CO2 at night

glycolysis
cytoplasm
anaerobic
glucose-->(ATP-->ADP) glucose-6-phosphate-->fructose-6-phosphate-->(ATP-->ADP) fructose-1,6-biphosphate-->DHAP, G3P(DHAP converted into G3P)-->(x2) 1,3BPG-->(ADP-->ATP)3PG-->2PG-->(H2O) PEP-->(ADP-->ATP) PYRUVATE

Kreb's Cycle
mitochondria matrix
pyruvate 3C-->(NAD-->NADH, -CO2; +CoA)-->acetyl CoA 2C-->oxaloacetate 4C-->citrate 6C-->isocitrate 6C-->(NAD-->NADH, -CO2) a-ketoglutarate 5C-->(NAD-->NADH, CO2) succinyl CoA 4C-->(GDP<-->GTP, ADP-->ATP) succinate 4C-->(FAD-->FADH2) fumerate 4C-->maleate 4C-->(NAD-->NADH)-->OOA 4C

ETC
mitochondria inner membrane
NADH-->NAD
NADH dehydrogenase (ADP-->ATP)-->coenzyme Q (FADH2-->FAD; ADP-->ATP)-->cytochrome B-C1 complex (2H)-->cytochrome C-->cytochrome oxidase complex (ADP-->ATP)-->H2O

Lipid catabolism
glyceral-->DHAP/G3P-->G3P
B-oxidation
fatty acid-->5 NADH, 5 FADH2

Ethanol fermentation
anaerobic
glycolysis-->pyruvate-->(-CO2) acetaldehyde (NADH<-->NAD)-->ethanol

Lactate fermemtation
anaerobic
glycolysis-->pyruvate-->(NADH<-->NAD)-->Lactate


!@#$%^&*()_+

C4 Plants vs Cam Plants

Similarities

-can grow in hot and dry environments

-involve PEP carboxylase

-organic acids are produced before Calvin Cycle takes place

Differences

-Stomata in CAM plants can only open during nighttime while those in C4 plants can open whenever CO2 is needed

-In C4 plants, first part of carbon fixation and Calvin Cycle occur in mesophyll cell and bundle-sheath cell respectively. In CAM plants, the 2 processes occur in stroma.

-In C4 plants, first part of carbon fixation and Calvin cycle take place through out the whole day. In CAM plants, carbon fixation occurs during the night and Calvin Cycle occurs during the day.

*I stole the results from michael yu*

0.2M HCl
0.1NaOH
cylinder volume= 600mL
-->reads 0mL
V=volume (mL), t=time (seconds)
--------------------------------------
30% concentration NaOH
initial cylinder reading: 200mL
  V     t
350 , 23
400, 33
450, 44
500, 63
530, 98
550, 105
570, 136
-------------------------------------
50% NaOH
initial cylinder reading:175mL
300, 7
350, 34
425, 60
450, 66
500, 78
525, 100
------------------------------------
70% NaOH
initial cylinder reading:75mL
  V    t
100, 4
150, 18
200, 26
250, 34
300, 43
350, 56
400, 70
450, 94
580, 123
-----------------------------------
Control Group, pH 7
initial cylinder reading: 150mL
  V    t
200, 3
250, 7
300, 10
-----------------------------------
50% HCl
initial cylinder reading: 190mL
  V    t
350, 3
400, 6
450, 11
500, 14
550, 20

Proteins

-chains of amino acids
-NH2 on one end; COOH on the other
-peptide linkage

Types:
i. Primary
ii. Secondary
-folded from primary
-helix
-pleated sheet
iii. Tertiary
-folded from secondary
-globular proteins
iv. Quaternary
-folded from tertiary

Types of amino acids:
i. Essential-->must be taken from food
ii. Non-essential-->made by the body

Entropy.

According to the Second Law of of Thermodynamics, the degree of randomness increases in the universe.

Randomness can be:

-a change in state (solid to liquid/gas or liquid to gas)

-a change in energy form

-a change in number of particles

Examples:

-redox reactions

-formation of steam

*Energy goes downhill.

Whenever there is a spontaneous reaction, there must be an increase in entropy.

Exothermic reactions: heat is released-->entropy increases

Endothermic reactions: heat is absorbed (energy is required)-->entropy decreases

Carboydrates

Chemical formula: (CH2O)n

Types:
i. Monosaccharides
Aldoses --> Aldehydes
Ketoses --> Ketones
Hexose --> 6-carbon ring
-5-sided ring (e.g. glucose)
-6-sided ring (e.g. fructose)
-"chairs" are more stable than "boats" because oxygens (reaction sites) in "chairs" are far away from each other
examples:
-glucose, fructose, galactose
ii. Disaccharides
formed when two monosaccharides react
examples:
-maltose, lactose, sucrose
iii. Polysaccharides
chain of monosaccharides
examples:
-amylose, amylopectin (has 2 branches), glycogen (has more branches than amylopectin), cellulose (network of glucose; component of cell walls)
iv. Oligosaccharides

Types of reactions:
i. Condensation/Dehydration
R-OH + HO-R' --> R-O-R' + H2O
Water is produced.
Glycosidic bond is formed.
examples:
glucose + glucose --> maltose + water
glucose + galactose --> lactose + water
ii. Hydrolysis
R-O-R' + H2O --> R-OH + HO-R'
example:
sucrose + water --> glucose + fructose

vector cloning vs PCR

vector cloning
-slower than PCR
-requires restriction enzymes, ligase, and vector DNA
-uses plasmid
-injection of plasmid into bacterial cell
-proteins can be produced

PCR
-faster than vector cloning
-used to amplify a target sequence
-only requires a single copy of DNA
-can be done with a machine
-forensic uses
-If the first copy is contaminated, the rest would also be contaminated.